World War Two had a significant impact on design throughout the world, with different countries being affected differently. New materials and technology for manufacture were developed during the war, which were then carried on into furniture design in the 1950’s and 1960’s. These materials and technologies prompted new designs, mass-produced items and obsolescence.
Different countries around the world were affected differently after WW2 which therefore impacted on furniture design developed after that period. Britain’s furniture designers after WW2 concentrated on industrial production and “good design”. This was because of their shortage of materials and rationing due to the after effect of war. Whereas America, on the other hand, turned to consumerism, producing materials and processes developed during WW2. Germany linked their design to engineering and “good design” aimed at a higher class market, which consisted of simple forms, ease in production and reliable to use. Italy produced sophisticated furniture with more innovation and variety due to small workshops and orientation to craft being kept open. Scandinavian design influenced organic designs into furniture along with ergonomics and fitness to purpose.
Britain’s design, due to the influence of post WW2, became stark, using low-key colours and shapes. Material shortages prompted a cost-effective approach to design rather than aesthetic. During WW2 materials and labour where in short supply and after the war designers, such as Robin Day, continued this mind set producing low cost, mass produced designs with new materials. Day designed furniture by problem solving, looking at ergonomics and cost, as well as mass production. Day used moulded plywood and plastic instead of pre war materials which where solid and heavy. His universal polypropylene stacking chair is an economical, lightweight and hardwearing chair that meets the needs of comfort, durability, cost efficiency and practicality of British furniture design post WW2.
“Good design” is a design concept based on a design fit for purpose. These designs where cheap, easily mass produced and ergonomic. As Robin Day said “a good design must fulfil its purpose well, be soundly constructed, and should express in its design this purpose and construction.”1 New materials and technology as well as other factors due to WW2 prompted “good design” in countries such as Britain and Germany. German designers took a systematic approach, embracing research-based design. This was due to strong design schools, such as Hochschule fur Gestaltung and corporations, such as Braun. Ergonomics was a factor when designing products with an investigative and theoretical approach, designing for the comfort, ease and safety to the user. New designs post WW2 influenced by new materials and technology looked at comfort, lightness, efficiency and beauty looking at the needs and wants of the user. This brought a connection between the designer’s expression through the product and value of consumer’s modern lifestyle.
New technologies and materials developed for WW2 where further developed into furniture design post war. Materials such as plastics, fibreglass and plywood as well as new ways of using aluminium and wire mesh for designs. American designer Charles Eames took these new materials, such as moulded fibreglass and plywood into his furniture design for home and office. Eames experimented with moulded plywood that, because of its flexibility and lightweight properties, was developed during WW2 for splints, stretches and aircraft parts. This is seen in his moulded plywood chair (1940). Eames saw a need for inexpensive, yet high quality furniture for the middle class consumer, as well as comfort for people using shaped surfaces and flexible materials instead of cushions. Fibreglass reinforced plastic used during WW2 for airplane parts was developed into Eames’ chair designs as it was easily moulded and easily mass produced as it was made up of one piece of plastic, enabling an unrestricted plastic form. His La Chaise (1948) chair is an example of this new material and process of manufacture that enabled expressive designs like la Chaise to be manufactured.
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Charles Eames, Moulded plywood chair (1940) (moulded plywood, wood, foam, rubber, fabric) |
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Charles Eames, La Chaise (1948) (Fibreglass-reinforcrd plastic, metel, wood) |
Earl Tupper produced a plastic manufactured for the war and continued its use into household use. He developed a new pliable plastic (Poly-T) for his sealable, airtight, flexible storage and serving containers. They were and stackable and the lids were interchangeable giving room to the consumer for storage. These modern looking containers promoted a positive look onto modern design and use of new materials in design.
The introduction of new materials and processes of manufacture during the war, for example, in Britain, where factories and machinery were adapted to meet needs of the war, introduced easy methods of mass production in design including furniture design. For example, during WW2 the use of aluminium was increased, therefore furniture and appliance design post WW2 was influenced by this easily mass-produced material. This is seen in anodised aluminium tumblers of the time, which were lightweight and unbreakable, however dented easily and were unstable. Another example is a folding aluminium chair that was lightweight yet flimsy. These kinds of designs encouraged obsolescence. Becoming unusable, promoting the need to have new products, reinforced through advertising. Manufacturers could now produce cheap mass produced designs with obsolescence in mind. People felt they forever needed the newest, up to date products, therefore promoting conscious obsolescence in manufacturers. “By giving a product a fashionable appearance the designer was virtually guaranteeing it would look old-fashioned in two or three years time”2, allowing manufacturers to design these attractive, yet flimsy, designs. Advertising played a large role in promoting obsolescence in design, reaching a wider audience than pre war. Advertisements were made to make current products seem old which promoted the need for replacement starting a cycle and a “throwaway culture”3. The introduction of conscious obsolescence in products was criticised as it encouraged conformity and produced kitsch or tasteless objects.
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Anodized aluminium tumblers (1955), Heller Hostess Ware |
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Folding Aluminium Chair (1964) (Aluminium, nylon) |
Increased concentration towards advertising promoted marketing strategies. Advertising became the important aspect to design, which saw a decrease in “good design”. These lower quality designs subject to obsolescence where promoted as being new and needed. New aspects in advertising where introduced, such as bold colours and photographic elements. These aspects conveyed a modern lifestyle full of ease and comfort, as well as the need to have the latest design.
New technology brought new designs and creative applications to materials developed through the war period. New techniques of production were used such as Grunnar Anderson’s experiments with poured rather than moulded rubber foam. New technologies in producing new materials such as stronger plastics brought lightweight furniture eliminating the requirement of wood or steel supports. Also the new way of manufacturing plastic in furniture design saw the advantage of new shapes and styles. These new styles incorporated organic design, abstract and science motifs. One of the most prominent designers who embraced this organic style of design would be Arne Jacobsen with his egg, swan and ant chairs. The egg chair (1957) is designed looking at ergonomics and user comfort as well as being organic and influenced by abstract sculpture such as Henry Moore’s work. Jacobsen’s egg chair uses new materials, being made from fibreglass and foam with a steel base. The use of these materials allowed him to produce an aesthetic abstract design.
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Egg Chair (1957), Arne Jacobsen (Fibreglass, chrome steel, leather-covered foam rubber upholster) |
Arne Jacobsen’s furniture design is an example of post WW2 Scandinavian design. With new materials and technology, Scandinavian design concentrated on the ergonomics of the design. Planning and researching what would be the most comfortable, fit to the purpose of the design and also incorporate the individual designers free expression. The designs from this period used new lightweight as well as natural materials. Poul Kjaerholm is a designer who felt the need for self-expression through his furniture design. His main material was steel mixed with natural materials such as cane, canvas, leather and rope for comfort. As he puts it, “steel’s constructive potential is not the only thing that interests me, the refraction of light on its surface is an important part of my artistic work.”4 These designers looked at industrial furniture design as an artwork; blending fine art and sculpture with industrial design.
Italian designers where also looking at organic forms in embraced new technologies as a way to artistically express themselves. The use of new materials such as plywood, tubular steel and foam rubber where developed along with other countries such as America. Marco Zanuso’s furniture designs such as his Antropus Armchair shows the use of organic forms mixed with new materials (moulded plywood and fabric covered foam-rubber upholstery). The use of these new materials allowed for mass production in furniture design. Zanuso practiced the concept of “good design” experimenting with bent metal and plastic to produce sophisticated designs recognised as Italian design. The new materials made way for the mix of “visually exciting and new contours, with industrial standards that were previously unimaginable”.
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Antropus armchair (1949), Marco Zanuso (Moulded plywood, foam upholster) |
Post WW2 furniture designs applied new technologies and materials used expansively during the war. These new materials enabled mass production of designs, free expression in new design forms and obsolescence as well as new advertising, efficient, reliable and comfortable designs and a introduced a modern lifestyle.
Notes:
1. Robin Day, 1962,
Design Museum, 2006
http://www.designmuseum.org/design/robin-lucienne-day
2. Nigel Whiteley, Toward a throwaway culture. Consumerism, ‘Style-obsolescence’ and cultural theory in the 1950’s and 1960’s Oxford Art Journal 1987
3. Reyner Banham, Design historian and critic,
Raizman, R., History of Modern Design, 2003, Laurence King Publishing,London
4. Poul Kjaerholm,
Danish Furniture
http://www.danish-furniture.com/
5. Marco Zanuso
http://www.r20thcentury.com/bios/designer.cfm?article_id=105
Bibliography
Byco, M. Aluminium Exhibits Its Versatility in Art, 2000
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0011/Byko-0011.html
Danish Furniture
http://www.danish-furniture.com/
Design Museum, 2006
http://www.designmuseum.org/design/
Designer Bios
http://www.r20thcentury.com/bios/designer.cfm
Library of Congress, The Work of Charles and Ray Eames
www.loc.gov/exhibits/eames/furniture.html
Raizman, R., History of Modern Design, 2003, Laurence King Publishing, London
Whiteley, N., Toward a throwaway culture. Consumerism, ‘Style-obsolescence’ and cultural theory in the 1950’s and 1960’s Oxford Art Journal 1987
http://www.jstor.org/view/01426540/ap040018/04a00020/
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